Luxury sofas in Canberra, ACT, represent a blend of exquisite design, superior craftsmanship, and comfortable living that elevates any home's interior. These sofas are not just functional pieces of furniture but also statements of style and sophistication, reflecting both contemporary trends and timeless elegance.
Canberra, as the capital city of Australia, hosts several premier showrooms and furniture stores specializing in luxury sofas that cater to a discerning clientele.
Luxury Dining Sets Canberra
Leather Sofas Canberra ACT
Affordable Bedroom Sets Canberra
Recliners that know how to handle Canberra’s movie marathon nights.
For example, King Living in Fyshwick offers an extensive range of award-winning sofas known for their innovative designs and high-quality materials. Luxury Dining Sets Canberra Their showroom provides personalized consultations and a seamless shopping experience, including online and click-and-collect options, making luxury more accessible and convenient for customers in the ACT region[1].
Similarly, Coco Republic's Canberra showroom located in the Canberra Centre presents a curated collection of luxurious indoor and outdoor furniture, including sofas that combine style and comfort. Their approach emphasizes not only the beauty of the pieces but also how they influence the ambiance and experience of a home, making them an excellent choice for those seeking to invest in enduring luxury[5].
Other notable retailers like Marco Furniture and Lounge Lovers in Fyshwick also offer premium sofas with a focus on craftsmanship and design sophistication. Marco Furniture, acclaimed as a top-rated furniture store in Canberra, provides a wide selection of quality sofas designed to transform living spaces with elegance and comfort[7]. Lounge Lovers similarly features designer sofas that appeal to those who value both aesthetics and relaxation in their living room setup[13].
Moreover, local design stores such as Miko Designs contribute to the luxury sofa market by offering Australian and Danish-made sofas that bring a blend of international design excellence and local craftsmanship. Buy Lounge Furniture Canberra . These pieces are often customizable, allowing customers to tailor their sofa to fit their personal style and living space[3].
In essence, luxury sofas in Canberra, ACT, are defined by their exceptional quality, design integrity, and the ability to transform a living space into a refined, comfortable environment. With numerous reputable showrooms and a variety of styles ranging from contemporary modular designs to classic leather Chesterfields, Canberra residents have access to some of the best luxury sofas available in Australia.
This vibrant market reflects a broader appreciation for furniture that combines functionality with artistry, ensuring that luxury sofas are not only a place to sit but also a centerpiece that enhances the home's character and comfort. Whether through bespoke consultations or extensive showroom collections, the luxury sofa experience in Canberra is tailored to meet the highest standards of style and quality.
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A final good or consumer good is a final product ready for sale that is used by the consumer to satisfy current wants or needs, unlike an intermediate good, which is used to produce other goods. A microwave oven or a bicycle is a final good.
When used in measures of national income and output, the term "final goods" includes only new goods. For example, gross domestic product (GDP) excludes items counted in an earlier year to prevent double counting based on resale of items. In that context, the economic definition of goods also includes what are commonly known as services.
A microwave oven, c. 2005: an example of a final good or consumer good
Various legal definitions exist for consumer products, depending on jurisdiction. One such definition is found in the United States' Consumer Product Safety Act, which provides extensive explanation of consumer products.
CONSUMER PRODUCT.- The term ‘‘consumer product’’ means any article, or component part thereof, produced or distributed (i) for sale to a consumer for use in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise, or (ii) for the personal use, consumption, or enjoyment of a consumer in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise; but such term does not include— (A) any article which is not customarily produced or distributed for sale to, or use or consumption by, or enjoyment of, a consumer,
It then goes on to list eight additional specific exclusions and further details.[1]
Consumer durable goods usually have a significant lifespan, which tends to be at least one year, based on the guarantee or warranty period. The maximum life depends upon the durability of the product or goods. Examples include tools, cars, and boats. On the other hand, capital goods, which are tangible in nature, such as machinery or building or any other equipment that can be used in manufacturing of final product, are durable goods with limited lifespans that are determined by manufacturers before their sale. The longevity and the often-higher cost of durable goods usually cause consumers to postpone expenditures on them, which makes durables the most volatile (or cost-dependent) component of consumption.
Consumer nondurable goods are purchased for immediate use or for use very soon. Generally, the lifespan of nondurable goods is from a few minutes to up to three years: food, beverages, clothing, shoes and gasoline are examples. In everyday language, nondurable goods get consumed or "used up".
Consumer services are intangible in nature. They cannot be seen, felt or tasted by the consumer but still give satisfaction to the consumer. They are also inseparable and variable in nature: they are thus produced and consumed simultaneously. Examples are haircuts, medical treatments, auto repairs and landscaping.
Convenience goods, shopping goods, and specialty goods are also known as "red goods", "yellow goods", and "orange goods", respectively, under the yellow, red and orange goods classification system.
Convenience goods are frequently used and readily available. Generally, convenience goods fall under the category of nondurable goods, such as fast food, cigarettes and tobacco, which are typically low-cost. Convenience goods are primarily sold by wholesalers or retailers in large volumes to ensure widespread availability to consumers. Convenience goods can further be classified into staple and impulse categories.
Staple convenience consumer goods are basic necessities for consumers. These goods are easily available and in large quantities, such as milk, bread, and sugar.
Impulse convenience consumer goods do not belong to the priority list of the consumer. They are purchased without any prior planning, just on the basis of the impulse: potato wafers, candies, ice cream, cold drinks, etc.
Shopping consumer goods are the goods which take lot of time and proper planning before making purchase decision; in this case consumer does a lot of selection and comparison based on various parameters such as cost, brand, style, comfort etc., before buying an item. Shopping goods are costlier than convenience goods and are durable in nature. Consumer goods companies usually try to set up their shops and show rooms in active shopping areas to attract customer attention and their main focus is to do much advertising and promotion to attract more customers.
Examples, include clothing items, televisions, radios, footwear, home furnishings, etc.
Specialty goods are unique in nature; these are unusual and luxurious items available in the market. Specialty goods are mostly purchased by the upper classes of society as they are expensive in nature and difficult to afford for the middle and lower classes. Companies advertise their goods targeting the upper class. These goods do not fall under the category of necessity; rather they are purchased on the basis personal preference or desire. Brand name, uniqueness, and special features of an item are major attributes which attract customers and make them buy such products.
Examples include antiques, jewelry, wedding dresses, cars, etc.
Unsought goods belong to neither the necessity group of consumer goods list nor to specialty goods. They are always available in the market but are purchased by very few consumers, either based on their interest or their need for some specific reasons. The general public does not purchase such goods often.
Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear analysis of the Mousterianstone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials.
Among the earlliest finds of woodworking are shaped sticks displaying notches from Kalambo Falls in southern Africa, dating to around 476,000 years ago.[1] The Clacton spearhead from Clacton-on-Sea, England, dating to around 400,000 years ago,[2] the Schöningen spears, from Schöningen (Germany) dating around 300,000 years ago[3] and the Lehringen spear from northern Germany, dating to around 120,000 years ago,[4] provide some of the first examples of wooden hunting implements. Wooden tools likely used for domestic activities including probable awls have also been found at Schöningen.[5]
Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark and wooden folding-chairs. The site of Fellbach-Schmieden in Germany has provided fine examples of wooden animal statues from the Iron Age. Wooden idols from the La Tène period known from a sanctuary at the source of the Seine in France.
There is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in ancient Egypt.[6] Woodworking is depicted in many extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture (such as stools, chairs, tables, beds, chests) have been preserved. Tombs represent a large collection of these artifacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, after 2000 BC bronze as iron working was unknown until much later.[7]
Woodworking was essential to the Romans. It provided material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Wood also provided pipes, dye, waterproofing materials, and energy for heat.[10]: 1 Although most examples of Roman woodworking have been lost,[10]: 2  the literary record preserved much of the contemporary knowledge. Vitruvius dedicates an entire chapter of his De architectura to timber, preserving many details.[11]Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants, providing a wealth of information on trees and their uses.[12]
The progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban (é¯ç pinyin: LÇ”bÄn) and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BC). Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line, and other tools to China. His teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing (é¯ç經, "Manuscript of Lu Ban")(é¯ç經 pinyin: LÇ”bÄn jÄ«ng). Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as flower pots, tables, altars, etc., and also contains extensive instructions concerning Feng Shui. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous.
CNC machine that operates on woodWoodworking apron
With the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed. The development of Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines, for example, has made it possible to mass-produce and reproduce products faster, with less waste, and often with more complex designs than ever before. CNC wood routers can carve complicated and highly detailed shapes into flat stock to create signs or art. Rechargeable power tools speed up the creation of many projects and require much less physical strength than in the past—for example, when boring multiple holes.
Skilled fine woodworking, however, remains a craft pursued by many. There remains demand for handcrafted work such as furniture and art; however, with the rate and cost of production, the price for consumers is much higher.
Modern wood carving usually refers to works of wood art produced by woodcarvers in the form of contemporary art. This type of woodcarving often combines traditional techniques with more modern artistic styles and concepts. Modern woodcarving can be produced in a variety of forms and styles, from realist to abstract carvings, and often uses unusual wood materials such as rain tree wood or wood with unique textures to highlight the uniqueness of the work.
In recent years, the art of modern woodcarving has become increasingly popular among woodworkers and visual art enthusiasts not only in Asia, but also around the world. Modern woodcarving art is often exhibited in art galleries and museums, and can be seen in several global contemporary art exhibitions.
Woodworking, especially furniture making, has many different designs/styles. Throughout its history, woodworking designs and styles have changed. Some of the more common styles are listed below. Traditional furniture styles usually include styles that have been around for long periods of time and have shown a mark of wealth and luxury for centuries. More modern furniture styles are commonly used over the past few hundred years.[13]
Historically, woodworkers relied upon the woods native to their region, until transportation and trade innovations made more exotic woods available to the craftsman. Woods are typically sorted into three basic types: hardwoods typified by tight grain and derived from broadleaf trees, softwoods from coniferous trees, and man-made materials such as plywood and MDF.
Hardwoods, botanically known as angiosperms, are deciduous and shed their leaves annually with temperature changes.[14] Softwoods come from trees botanically known as gymnosperms, which are coniferous, cone-bearing, and stay green year round.[14] Although a general pattern, softwoods are not necessarily always "softer" than hardwoods, and vice versa.[15]
Softwood is most commonly found in the regions of the world with lower temperatures and is typically less durable, lighter in weight, and more vulnerable to pests and fungal attacks in comparison to hardwoods. They typically have a paler color and a more open grain than hardwoods, which contributes to the tendency of felled softwood to shrink and swell as it dries.[15] Softwoods usually have a lower density, around 432–592 kg/m3, which can compromise its strength.[15] Density, however, does vary within both softwoods and hardwoods depending on the wood's geographical origin and growth rate. However, the lower density of softwoods also allows it to have a greater strength with lighter weight. In the United States, softwoods are typically cheaper and more readily available and accessible.[15] Most softwoods are suitable for general construction, especially framing, trim, and finish work, and carcassing.[16][15]
Hardwoods are separated into two categories, temperate and tropical hardwoods, depending on their origin. Temperate hardwoods are found in the regions between the tropics and poles, and are of particular interest to wood workers for their cost-effective aesthetic appeal and sustainable sources.[15] Tropical hardwoods are found within the equatorial belt, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Hardwoods flaunt a higher density, around 1041 kg/m3 as a result of slower growing rates and is more stable when drying.[15] As a result of its high density, hardwoods are typically heavier than softwoods but can also be more brittle.[15] While there are an abundant number of hardwood species, only 200 are common enough and pliable enough to be used for woodworking.[17] Hardwoods have a wide variety of properties, making it easy to find a hardwood to suit nearly any purpose, but they are especially suitable for outdoor use due to their strength and resilience to rot and decay.[15] The coloring of hardwoods ranges from light to very dark, making it especially versatile for aesthetic purposes. However, because hardwoods are more closely grained, they are typically harder to work than softwoods. They are also harder to acquire in the United States and, as a result, are more expensive.[15]
Woodworking hand tools used in class at the Women's Woodshop in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Typically furniture such as tables and chairs is made using solid stock from hardwoods due to its strength and resistance to warping.[16] Additionally, they also have a greater variety of grain patterns and color and take a finish better which allows the woodworker to exercise a great deal of artistic liberty. Hardwoods can be cut more cleanly and leave less residue on sawblades and other woodworking tools.[16] Cabinet/fixture makers employ the use of plywood and other man made panel products. Some furniture, such as the Windsor chair involve green woodworking, shaping with wood while it contains its natural moisture prior to drying.
Cedars are strong, aromatic softwoods that are capable of enduring outdoor elements, the most common of which is the western red cedar. Western red cedar can sustain wet environments without succumbing to rot, and as a result is commonly used for outdoor projects such as patios, outdoor furniture, and building exteriors. This wood can be easily found at most home centers in the US and Canada for a moderate price.[18]
Within the USA fir, also known as Douglas fir, is inexpensive and common at local home centers. It has a characteristic straight, pronounced grain with a red-brown tint. However, its grain pattern is relatively plain and it does not stain well, so fir is commonly used when the finished product will be painted. While commonly used for building, this softwood would also be suitable for furniture-making.[18]
White pine, ponderosa, and southern yellow pine are common species used in furniture-making. White pine and ponderosa are typically used for indoor projects, while Southern yellow pine is recommended for outdoor projects due to its durability.[19]
Ash is relatively easy to work with and takes stain well, but its white to light brown color with a straight grain is visually appealing on its own. However, ash is much more difficult to find than other common woods, and will not be found at the local home center. Larger lumber yards should have it in stock.[18]
Hardwood of the European species Fagus sylvatica is widely used for furniture framing and carcase construction, in plywood, musical instruments (drum shells and piano blocks) and turned items like knobs.[20]
Whether yellow or white birch, these hardwoods are stable and easy to work with. Despite this, birch is prone to blotching when stained, so painting birch products is probably best. Birch is easily found at many home centers and is a relatively inexpensive hardwood.[18]
Popular and easy to work with, cherry wood is in high demand for its reddish-brown color and ease of staining and finishing. Cherry likely will not be at the local home center, but should be at a lumberyard for a somewhat expensive price.[18] This hardwood is a very common material for furniture, and is resistant to normal wear-and-tear, but it is best for indoor pieces.[21]
A hardwood, mahogany has a trademark reddish-brown to deep-red tint and is known as "one of the great furniture woods". However, mahogany is not typically grown in sustainable forests, and thus runs a steep price at local lumber yards.[18]
With two varieties, red and white, oak is known to be easy to work with and relatively strong. However, furniture makers often opt for white oak over red oak for its attractive figure and moisture-resistance.[18] Depending on the kind needed, oak can probably be found at a local home center or a lumberyard for a bit pricier than other hardwoods.[22][18][21]
With strength, sturdiness, and durability, maple is a common material for furniture for the bedroom and even china cabinets. Maple is moisture-resistant and frequently displays stand-out swirls in the wood grain, an aesthetically pleasing differentiator from other hardwoods. While most commonly a lighter color, maple also can take stains and paint well.[21]
There are many factors to consider when deciding what type of wood to use for a project. One of the most important is the workability of the wood: the way in which it responds when worked by hand or tools, the quality of the grain, and how it responds to adhesives and finishes.[15] When the workability of wood is high, it offers a lower resistance when cutting and has a diminished blunting effect on tools.[15] Highly workable wood is easier to manipulate into desired forms. If the wood grain is straight and even, it will be much easier to create strong and durable glued joints. Additionally, it will help protect the wood from splitting when nailed or screwed.[15] Coarse grains require a lengthy process of filing and rubbing down the grain to produce a smooth result.[15]
Another important factor is the durability of the wood, especially in regards to moisture. If the finished project will be exposed to moisture (e.g. outdoor projects) or high humidity or condensation (e.g. in kitchens or bathrooms), then the wood needs to be especially durable in order to prevent rot. Because of their oily qualities, many tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany are popular for such applications.[15]
While many woods can be used for carving, there are some clear favorites, including aspen, basswood, butternut, black walnut, and oak.[23] Because it has almost no grain and is notably soft, Basswood is particularly popular with beginner carvers. It is used in many lower-cost instruments like guitars and electric basses.[23] Aspen is similarly soft, although slightly harder, and readily available and inexpensive.[23] Butternut has a deeper hue than basswood and aspen and has a nice grain that is easy to carve, and thus friendly for beginners. It is also suitable for furniture.[23] While more expensive than basswood, aspen, and butternut, black walnut is a popular choice for its rich color and grain.[23] Lastly, oak is a strong, sturdy, and versatile wood for carving with a defined grain. It is also a popular wood for furniture making.[23]
Each area of woodworking requires a different variation of tools. Power tools and hand tools are both used for woodworking. Many modern woodworkers choose to use power tools in their trade for the added ease and to save time. However, many woodworkers still choose to use only hand tools for several reasons such as tradition, the experience and the added character to the work, while some choose to use only hand tools simply for their own enjoyment.
Hand tools are classified as tools that receive power only from the hands that are holding them. Edged hand woodworking tools need to be sharpened which is done using the sharpening jig and sharpening stone. A more novel method involves the use of sandpaper.[24] The more common modern hand tools are:
Hand tools
Clamps
Woodworking clamps. Top left two are f-style clamps. On the right is a quick-grip Irwin clamp. In the bottom middle is a spring clamp.
Clamps are used to hold a workpiece while being worked. Clamps vary in all shapes and sizes from small c-clamps to very large bar or strap clamps.[25] A vise is a form of clamp, temporarily or permanently mounted as required. A woodworking vise is a vise specialized to the needs of a woodworker; numerous types have evolved.
Chisels
Five woodworking wood chisels
Chisels are tools with a long blade, a cutting edge, and a handle. Used for cutting and shaping wood or other materials.[25]
Claw hammer
A common hammer, the claw hammer, used in woodworking and other activities
The claw hammer, which can hammer, pry, and pull nails, is the most common hammer used in woodworking.[25]
Hand plane
Two woodworking hand planes
A hand plane is used to surface aspects of a workpiece.
Square
A try square. A common style of square in woodworking usually used for 90 degree angles
The square is used to mark angles on any workpiece. An adjustable square also includes a ruler. A speed square can mark 90 and 45-degree fixed angles and any angle between 0 and 90 degrees using its long axis.[25]
Tape measure
Tape measure
A tape measure is a retractable or flexible ruler that has measurement increments as small as 1/32" or 1 millimetre.
Handsaw
Three old handsaws
A handsaw, according to Cambridge University, "a saw that is operated by hand rather than using electricity or a motor."[26]
Files & Rasps
Top two are files. The bottom (orange-handled) tool is a rasp.
Both files and rasps are used to grind down wood material either to make the surface flat, rounded, concaved, or many other shapes. Rasps make deeper cuts while files make smaller and less harsh cuts on the wood. The difference between the two is mainly their teeth size.[27]
Power tools are tools that are powered by an external energy such as a battery, motor, or a power cable connected to a wall outlet. The more common power tools are:[25]
Power tools
Drill
Cordless electric power drill.
The drill is a tool used to drill a hole or to insert a screw into a workpiece.[25]
Palm sander
Two palm sanders. Left sander is an orbital palm sander. The sander on the right is a mouse sander. Which uses vibration instead of orbital motions.
A palm sander is a small powered sander that uses either a vibration or orbital motion to move a piece of sand paper upon the workpiece making very fine modifications in smoothing your product.[25]
Compound miter saw
Electric compound miter saw.
A compound miter saw, also known as a chop saw is a stationary saw used for making precise cuts across the grain path of a board. These cuts can be at any chosen angle that the particular saw is capable of.[25]
Table saw
Electric plug-in tablesaw for woodworking.
A table saw is intended to make long precise cuts along the grain pattern of the board known as rip cuts. Most table saws offer the option of a beveled rip cut.[25]
Thickness planer
A thickness planer is used to smooth the surface of a board and make it the exact thickness across the entire board.[25]
Jointer
Powermatic jointer for woodworking.
A jointer is used to produce a flat surface along a board's length and to create a square (or 90°) edge between two adjoining surfaces.[25]
Band saw
Plug-in band saw.
A band saw[25] is used to make both irregularly shaped cuts and cuts through material thicker than a table saw can manage. It is much more robust[28] than the jigsaw or more delicate scroll saw, also regularly used in woodworking.
Drill press
Older drill press. Floor mounted drill press.
A drill press is an important tool used in woodworking. It is similar to a hand drill, but is a table/floor mounted machine that uses a shaft with a spring loaded handle to lower the drill bit into the wood or material. A hand drill is used by many woodworkers, but a drill press is even more accurate and powerful.[29]
Drum sander
A drum sander is a machine that uses a wide rotating sandpaper drum to sand down a piece of wood as it rolls through the tool. Similar to a planer in how it operates; but instead of blades, a drum sander uses sandpaper.[30]
^ abcdefghijklmnoStephen., Corbett (2012). The practical woodworker: a comprehensive step-by-step course in working with wood. Freeman, John. Wigston: Southwater. ISBN978-1-78019-220-8. OCLC801605649.
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Modern furniture refers to furniture produced from the late 19th century through the present that is influenced by modernism. Post-World War II ideals of cutting excess, commodification, and practicality of materials in design heavily influenced the aesthetic of the furniture. It was a tremendous departure from all furniture design that had gone before it. There was an opposition to the decorative arts, which included Art Nouveau, Neoclassical, and Victorian styles. Dark or gilded carved wood and richly patterned fabrics gave way to the glittering simplicity and geometry of polished metal. The forms of furniture evolved from visually heavy to visually light. This shift from decorative to minimalist principles of design can be attributed to the introduction of new technology, changes in philosophy, and the influences of the principles of architecture. As Philip Johnson, the founder of the Department of Architecture and Design at the Museum of Modern Art articulates:[1]
"Today industrial design is functionally motivated and follows the same principles as modern architecture: machine-like simplicity, smoothness of surface, avoidance of ornament ... It is perhaps the most fundamental contrast between the two periods of design that in 1900 the Decorative Arts possessed ..."
With the machine aesthetic, modern furniture easily came to promote factory modules, which emphasized the time-managing, efficient ideals of the period. Modernist design was able to strip down decorative elements and focus on the design of the object in order to save time, money, material, and labour. The goal of modern design was to capture timeless beauty in spare precision.[2]
Prior to the modernist design movement, there was an emphasis on furniture as an ornament. The length of time a piece took to create was often a measure of its value and desirability. The origins of modernist design can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution and the birth of mechanized production. With new resources and advancements, a new philosophy emerged, one that shifted the emphasis of objects being created for decorative purposes to being designs that promote functionality, accessibility, and production.[3]
The idea of accessible, mass-produced design that is affordable to anyone was not only applied to industrial mechanics, but also to the aesthetics of architecture and furniture. This philosophy of practicality came to be called Functionalism. It became a popular "catchword" and played a large role in theories of modern design. Functionalism rejected the imitation of stylistic and historical forms and sought an establishment of functionality in a piece. Functionalist designers would consider the interaction of the design with its user and how many of the features, such as shape, colour, and size, would conform to the human posture.[4] Western design generally, whether architectural or design of furniture, had for millennia sought to convey an idea of lineage, a connection with tradition and history. However, the modern movement sought newness, originality, technical innovation, and ultimately the message that it conveyed spoke of the present and the future, rather than of what had gone before it.[2]
The modernist design seems to have evolved out of a combination of influences: technically innovative materials and new manufacturing methods. Following the Second Industrial Revolution, new philosophies and artists emerged from the De Stijl movement in the Netherlands, the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus school, both located in Germany.
The De Stijl (The Style) movement, was founded in 1917 by Theo Van Doesburg in Amsterdam. The movement was based on the principles of promoting abstraction and universality by reducing excessive elements down to the essentials of form and colour. Dutch design generally has shown a preference for simple materials and construction, but De Stijl artists, architects, and designers strove to combine these elements to create a new visual culture. Characteristics of furniture from this movement include simplified geometry of vertical and horizontal compositions and pure primary colours and black and white. It was the rejection of the decorative excesses from Art Nouveau and promoted logicality through construction and function. Influential artists from this movement include Gerrit Rietveld, Piet Mondrian, and Mies van der Rohe, who continued to evolve the ideas of modernist design.[5][6]: 33–183 
Founded in 1907 in Munich, Germany, the Deutscher Werkbund was an organization of artists, designers, and manufacturers that pushed to create a cultural utopia achieved through a design and new ideas in the early twentieth century. They shared the Modern thought of "form follows function" as well as the "ethnically pure" design principles such as quality, material honestly, functionality, and sustainability. The DWB played a key role in advocating these to other German artists and designers, which inspired the development of many Modern design institutions. Among the most notable architects and designers from the DWB are: Hermann Muthesius, Peter Behrens, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[7]
The Bauhaus school, founded in 1919 in Weimar, Germany, by architect Walter Gropius, was an art school that combined all aspects of art. It eventually was forced to move to Dessau, Germany, in 1925 due to political tensions, then Berlin, in 1932 until the doors of the school were closed from the pressure of the Nazi regime. With the change of location came a change of direction in the institution. The Bauhaus adopted an emphasis on production in Dessau, but maintained its intellectual concerns in design.[8] Throughout the years, the goal of the institution was to combine intellectual, practical, commercial, and aesthetic concerns through art and technology. The Bauhaus promoted the unity of all areas of art and design: from typography to tableware, clothing, performance, furniture, art, and architecture. Prominent artists and designers from the Bauhaus include: Marcel Breuer, Marianne Brandt, Hannes Meyer (who was Gropius's successor, only to be replaced by Mies van der Rohe).[6]: 38–138 [9]
An aesthetic preference for the baroque and the complex was challenged not only by new materials and the courage and creativity of a few Europeans, but also by the growing access to African and Asian design. In particular the influence of Japanese design is legend: in the last years of the 19th century the Edo period in Japan, Japanese isolationist policy began to soften, and trade with the west began in earnest. The artifacts that emerged were striking in their simplicity, their use of solid planes of color without ornament, and contrasting use of pattern. A tremendous fashion for all things Japanese – Japonism – swept Europe. Some say that the western Art Nouveau movement emerged from this influence directly. Designers such as Charles Rennie MacIntosh and Eileen Gray are known for both their modern and Art Deco work, and they and others like Frank Lloyd Wright are notable for a certain elegant blending of the two styles.
The use of new materials, such as steel in its many forms; glass, used by Walter Gropius; molded plywood, such as that used by Charles and Ray Eames; and of course plastics, were formative in the creation of these new designs. They would have been considered pioneering, even shocking in contrast to what came before. This interest in new and innovative materials and methods – produced a certain blending of the disciplines of technology and art. And this became a working philosophy among the members of the Deutscher Werkbund. The Werkbund was a government-sponsored organization to promote German art and design around the world. Many of those involved with it including Mies van der Rohe, Lilly Reich and others, were later involved in the Bauhaus School, and so it is not surprising perhaps that the Bauhaus School took on the mantle of this philosophy. They evolved a particular interest in using these new materials in such a way that they might be mass-produced and therefore make good design more accessible to the masses.
The first versions of Gerrit Rietveld's Red-Blue Armchair were created around 1917. However, they were originally stained black – the colour was eventually added to give characteristics of De Stijl in 1923. Rietveld's intent was to design a piece of furniture that could be cheaply mass-produced. He uses standard beechwood laths and pine planks that intersect and are fixed by wooden pegs. The functions of construction, the seat, the back and armrests are explicitly separated from one another visually. In fact, Rietveld saw the chair as the skeleton of an overstuffed armchair with all the excessive components removed. [6]: 32–183 
This modernist creation enjoyed enduring fame in the post-war period, seeing reproduction numbers upwards of four digits across two continents.[10] The Wassily Chair, also known as the Model B3 chair, was designed by Marcel Breuer in 1925–26 while he was the head of the cabinet-making workshop at the Bauhaus, in Dessau, Germany.
This piece is particularly influential because it introduces a simple, yet elegant and light-weight industrial material to be used in structures within the domestic space: chrome plated tubular steel. The design of the chair is revolutionary [citation needed] with its use of symmetrical, geometric planes framed by the tubular steel. Breuer uses simple straps on canvas for the seat, back and armrests to support the seated figure. The concept of the use of tubular steel, a never before seen the material in the domestic space was inspired by the handles of Breuer's bicycle. He reasoned that if such a material was light-weight yet strong enough to support the body in motion, it is likely to be able to support the body at rest. He applies uncomplicated essentials (the canvas strips) to create a functional aesthetic as well. Nonetheless, the Model B3 Chair (dubbed the Wassily Chair by the manufacturing company, Gavina after learning of the anecdote involving the painter Wassily Kandinsky) inspired many artists and designers to include the use of chrome plated steel, including Le Corbusier, who includes it as a structure for his Chaise Longue. [citation needed]
Inspired by Marcel Breuer's use of chrome plated tubular steel in his Wassily Chair, in 1928, Le Corbusier creates a sleek steel support for the back and seat of his Chaise Longue. The Chaise Longue features a movable seat section and an adjustable headrest, which is an early example of ergonomic design. With the tubular steel frames and leather or skin upholstery, the sleek Chaise Longue was initially manufactured for private French house commissions including the Villa Savoye, Poissy (1929–31) and the Ville-d'Avray. This piece epitomizes the mass production of the industrial age through the use of materials and structure. However, unlike the Wassily Chair, the complex design made reproduction expensive.[6]: 48–183 
The Le Corbusier LC2 are armchairs and sofas with the chrome plated tubular steel frame supporting loose cushions placed on elasticated straps. The LC2 represented the new and modern conception of designer furniture in the Le Corbusier minimalism – style with the steel cage giving an element of industrial. The first results of the collaboration between Le Corbusier and Perriand were three pieces of furniture made with chrome-plated tubular steel frames.
Designed in 1927 as a bedside table for the guest room in E-1027, the home Eileen Gray designed for herself (and Jean Badovici) in Cap Martin, France, the asymmetry of this piece is characteristic of her "non-conformist" design style in her architectural projects and furniture. Eileen Gray had always been influenced by Japanese lacquer and furniture, and the minimalist lines and elegant structure found normally in traditional Japanese works are found in most of Gray's objects. The name, E-1027, can be seen in a somewhat romantic reading: The E stands for "Eileen" and the numbers, corresponding to their sequence in the alphabet, stand for J, B, and G. The second and tenth letter allude to her friend and mentor, Jean Badovici.Gray's emphasis on functionalist design is apparent in her use of tubular steel and the concentric symmetry of the surface. Notably, this piece also has specific utility, as it can be adjusted such that one can eat breakfast in bed on it. Gray's sister had requested such accommodation during her visits to E-1027. [6]: 46–183 
The Barcelona chair has come to represent the Bauhaus design movement. Many consider it to be functional art, rather than just furniture. Designed by Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich in 1929 for the German Pavilion at the international design fair,[11] the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition, it is said to have been inspired by both the folding chairs of the Pharaohs, and the X-shaped footstools of the Romans, and dedicated to the Spanish royal families. Like other designers following Breuer's example, he incorporates the use of chrome-plated flat steel bars to create a single S-shaped curve. The front legs cross the 'S' curve of the bars forming the seat and the back legs. It creates a sleek and intentionally simple aesthetic to the piece.
In 1963 Robin Day designed the Polyprop chair for the British furniture design house Hille. Made of moulded polypropylene, the Polyprop sold in millions and became the world's best-selling chair. Today it is regarded as a modern design classic, and has been celebrated by Royal Mail with a commemorative postage stamp.[12][13]
Noguchi table was designed by Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988), a sculptor, draftsman, potter, architect, landscape architect, product, furniture and stage designer. Half American, half Japanese, he is famous for his organic modern forms. He often stated, "Everything is sculpture, any materials, any idea without hindrance born into space, I consider sculpture." The Noguchi table – has become famous for its unique and unmistakable simplicity. It is refined and at the same time natural, it is one of the most sought-after pieces associated with the modern classic furniture movement.
Chronologically the design movement that produced modern furniture design, began earlier than one might imagine. Many of its most recognizable personalities were born of the 19th or the very beginning of the 20th centuries.
They were teaching and studying in Germany and elsewhere in the 1920s and 30s. At among other places the Bauhaus school of art and architecture. The furniture that was produced during this era is today known as "Modern Classic Furniture" or "Mid Century Modern".
Both the Bauhaus School and the Deutscher Werkbund had as their specific creative emphasis the blending of technology, new materials and art.
Obviously not all furniture produced since this time is modern, for there is still a tremendous amount of traditional design being reproduced for today's market and then, of course, there is also an entire breed of design which sits between the two, and is referred to as transitional design. Neither entirely modern or traditional, it seeks to blend elements of multiple styles. It often includes both modern and traditional as well as making visual reference to classical Greek form and/or other non-western styles (for example Tribal African pattern, Asian scroll work etc.).
Today contemporary furniture designers and manufacturers continue to evolve the design. Still seeking new materials, with which to produce unique forms, still employing simplicity and lightness of form, in preference to a heavy ornament. And most of all they are still endeavouring to step beyond what has gone before to create entirely new visual experiences for us.
The designs that prompted this paradigm shift were produced in the middle of the 20th century, most of them well before 1960. And yet they are still regarded internationally as symbols of the modern age, the present and perhaps even the future. Modern Classic Furniture became an icon of elegance and sophistication.
^
Johnson, Philip (1933). Objects 1900 and Today: An Exhibition of Decorative and Useful Objects Contrasting Two Periods of Design. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art. p. 14.
^ abKaplan, Wendy, ed. (1995). Designing modernity : the arts of reform and persuasion : 1885–1945; selections from the Wolfsonian; [the Wolfsonian, Miami Beach, November 11, 1995 – April 28, 1996 ...] London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN0-500-23706-9.
^Fiell, Charlotte & Peter (1999). Design of the 20th century. Köln [u.a.]: Taschen. pp. 6–768. ISBN3-8228-5873-0.
^Wolf, / Gerd Hatje, Peter Kaspar; translated by Robert E. (1974). 1601 decorating ideas for modern living : a practical guide to home furnishing and interior design. New York: Harry N. Abrams. pp. 15–300. ISBN978-0-8109-0129-2.cite book: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Antonelli, Paola (2003). Objects of Design from the Museum of Modern Art. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art. ISBN9780870706110. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
Interior design is the art and science of enhancing the interior of a building to achieve a healthier and more aesthetically pleasing environment for the people using the space. With a keen eye for detail and a creative flair, an interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such enhancement projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, space planning, site inspections, programming, research, communicating with the stakeholders of a project, construction management, and execution of the design. Interior designers make use of fundamental design principles from the visual arts used to help viewers understand a given scene.
Typical interior of one of the houses in the Folk Architecture Reservation in Vlkolínec (Slovakia)
In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.[1]
The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes.
The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of interior decorator, a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession.
In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis[2] in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan that display wall art paintings.
In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors.[3]
Reconstructed Roman triclinium or dining room, with three klinai or couches
Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar,[4] as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement.[5] It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative mosaics floors,[6] and templated bath houses, shops, civil offices, Castra (forts) and temple, interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as Vitruvius: De architectura, libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture).[7][8]
Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.
In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century.[9]
In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.[9]
As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons, and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.[10]
This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an upholsterywarehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies.[11]
Illustration from The Grammar of Ornament (1856), by interior designer Owen Jones
A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century.[12] Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton's gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament (1856),[13] in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration.
Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector Alfred Morrison as well as Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt.
This interior was designed by John Dibblee Crace, President of the Institute of British Decorators, established in 1899.
By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers.[15] She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:
One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.
The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country.[16] By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda Garrett and Agnes Garrett were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work – Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.[17]
By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:[18]
Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.
In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac, and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie de Wolfe.[19]
Elsie de Wolfe, taken from The House in Good Taste, 1913
Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical;[20] she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night.[21][22] She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.[23]
In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to New York City and Chicago.[24] Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths.[25]
The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.[23]
Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design.[23] Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938,[26] governed various areas of design.
It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded.[23]
Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations.[23] Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.
Interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior to create functional spaces, that are aesthetically pleasing, within a building. Decoration is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements, sometimes complemented by advice and practical assistance. In short, interior designers may decorate, but decorators do not design.
Interior designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on planning, functional design and the effective use of space, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer in fine line design can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as window and door positioning, acoustics, and lighting.[1] Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their designs stamped for approval by a structural engineer. Interior designers often work directly with architects, engineers and contractors.
Interior designers must be highly skilled in order to create interior environments that are functional, safe, and adhere to building codes, regulations and ADA requirements. They go beyond the selection of color palettes and furnishings and apply their knowledge to the development of construction documents, occupancy loads, healthcare regulations and sustainable design principles, as well as the management and coordination of professional services including mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and life safety—all to ensure that people can live, learn or work in an innocuous environment that is also aesthetically pleasing.
Someone may wish to specialize and develop technical knowledge specific to one area or type of interior design, such as residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, furniture design, and spatial branding. Interior design is a creative profession that is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is not always an artistic pursuit and can rely on research from many fields to provide a well-trained understanding of how people are often influenced by their environments.
Color is a powerful design tool in decoration, as well as in interior design, which is the art of composing and coordinating colors together to create a stylish scheme on the interior architecture of the space.[27][28]
It can be important to interior designers to acquire a deep experience with colors, understand their psychological effects, and understand the meaning of each color in different locations and situations in order to create suitable combinations for each place.[29] Color is something that an interior design needs to understand. Color can affect the way that humans think, feel, or look at space. Color can have a major effect on human behavior through all ages. An interior designer must understand that different colors can easily overstimulate people depending on the environment. Color can also have effects on a room. For example, if someone is claustrophobic then painting a room in darker colors could make the room feel smaller therefore the person could feel trapped.
Combining colors together could result in creating a state of mind as seen by the observer, and could eventually result in positive or negative effects on them. Colors can make the room feel either more calm, cheerful, comfortable, stressful, or dramatic. Color combinations can make a tiny room seem larger or smaller.[30] So it is for the Interior designer to choose appropriate colors for a place towards achieving how clients would want to look at, and feel in, that space.[29]
Lighting is very important when designing a space. Lighting in a room can affect the way that a room is shown. By adding natural and artificial lighting a designer can enhance the features in space and make it more pleasing. When an interior designer places lighting in a home it is important to know what lighting to put where and how to use lighting to highlight important places in the room. Lighting can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a place, setting the mood for the room. For example, when putting lighting into an office you want tp make sure there is overhead lighting, task/ desk lighting and natural lighting. Making sure there is enough lighting in a workspace is important so the person using the place does not strain their eyesight.
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type of design is specific for individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodeling of an existing structure. It is often a process that takes months to fine-tune and create a space with the vision of the client.[31]
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of subspecialties.
Retail: includes malls and shopping centers, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising, and showrooms.
Visual and spatial branding: The use of space as a medium to express a corporate brand.
Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks.
Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities.
Hospitality and recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cruise ships, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theaters, music and concert halls, opera houses, sports venues, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc.
Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.[31]
Exhibition: includes museums, gallery, exhibition hall, specially the design for showroom and exhibition gallery.
Traffic building: includes bus station, subway station, airports, pier, etc.
Sports: includes gyms, stadiums, swimming rooms, basketball halls, etc.
Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of interior design.
Other areas of specialization include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design, exhibit design, event design (including ceremonies, weddings, baby and bridal showers, parties, conventions, and concerts), interior and prop styling, craft styling, food styling, product styling, tablescape design, theatre and performance design, stage and set design, scenic design, and production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and the University of Florida offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies.
There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.
In many countries, several university degree courses are now available, including those on interior architecture, taking three or four years to complete.
A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organization of interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.D. programs available for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (i.e. gerontological or healthcare design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms and online renovation platforms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, who made up 32% of interior designers in 2020,[32] usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs and wishes.
In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations. However, with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.[33]
The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau. The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a world's fair held in Paris in 1925.[34] Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new technologies and materials.[35]
Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining, and clean lines.[36][37] The style offered a sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.[38]
Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin.[35] The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very popular at the time – for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs.[39] The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.[38]
The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color, and black and white. In interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey, and platinum tended to predominate.[36][40]Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.[38][41]
Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time.[42] As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well.[43]
Art Deco furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes, and clean lines.[34][38] Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.[44]
Modern design grew out of the decorative arts, mostly from the Art Deco, in the early 20th century.[45] One of the first to introduce this modernist style was Frank Lloyd Wright, who had not become hugely popularized until completing the house called Fallingwater in the 1930s. Modern art reached its peak during the 1950s and '60s, which is why designers and decorators today may refer to modern design as being "mid-century".[45] Modern art does not refer to the era or age of design and is not the same as contemporary design, a term used by interior designers for a shifting group of recent styles and trends.[45]
"Majlis painting", also called nagash painting, is the decoration of the majlis, or front parlor of traditional Arabic homes, in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen. These wall paintings, an arabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: "Called 'nagash' in Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house."[46]
The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area's textile and weaving patterns. "In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and ornamentation characterize those of Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and vegetable pigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail. Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an indicator of social and economic change."[47]
Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. "You could tell a family's wealth by the paintings," Um Abdullah says: "If they didn't have much money, the wife could only paint the motholath, the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green, yellow and brown." When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such as Fatima Abou Gahas.[46]
The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines, triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. "Some of the large triangles represent mountains. Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall paintings in 'Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past."[46]
"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster (though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh, examples can be seen in unadorned clay.[48]
Sustainable Design is becoming more important today. This type of style includes eco-friendly, energy efficient, and sustainable design while keeping the space functional. Modern design prioritizes energy efficient design styles and eco-friendly design styles.
Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom, popular interior design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC), and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In addition, both HGTV and the DIY Network also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators, and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects.
Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle shows include Martha Stewart Living and Living Large featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland, among others.
Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell, while Veranda is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility and a do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to interior design.[citation needed]
^Howe, Katherine S. Herter Brothers: Furniture and Interiors for a Gilded Age. Harry N. Abrams: Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 1994. ISBN0-8109-3426-4.1994
^Clouse, Doug. "The Handy Book of Artistic Printing: Collection of Letterpress Examples with Specimens of Type, Ornament, Corner Fills, Borders, Twisters, Wrinklers, and other Freaks of Fancy". Princeton Architectural Press, 2009. p. 179.
^Clouse, Doug. "The Handy Book of Artistic Printing: Collection of Letterpress Examples with Specimens of Type, Ornament, Corner Fills, Borders, Twisters, Wrinklers, and other Freaks of Fancy". Princeton Architectural Press, 2009. p. 66
^Gray, Christopher (2003), "Streetscapes/Former Colony Club at 120 Madison Avenue; Stanford White Design, Elsie de Wolfe Interior," The New York Times, 28 September 2003 [1]Archived 2022-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
^ abcdeLees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^Plunket, Robert. "Syrie's Turn: Once, everyone read W. Somerset Maugham. But now his late ex-wife is the one selling books", Sarasota Magazine, 2006, v. 10.
^ abTinniswood, Adrian. The Art Deco House: Avant-Garde House of the 1920s and 1930s. Watsonguptill publishing company. New York. 2002
^ abStriner, Richard. "Art Deco: Polemics and Synthesis". WInterthur portfolio, Vol 25. No. 1 spring, 1990. PP. 26–34.
^ abBeusterien, John. Rodriguez, EduardoLuis. Narciso G. The Architectural Avant-Garde: From Art Deco to Modern Regionalism. The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, Vol. 22, Cuba Theme Issue (1996), PP. 254–277
^Stanley, Meisler. ’Art Deco: High Style. Smithsonian’, Nov 2004, Vol. 35 Issue 8, PP 57–60
^ abcdBayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^Yang, Jian. "Art Deco 1910–39". Craft Arts International, 2003, Issue 59, PP. 84–87.
^Tinniswood, Adrian. ‘The Art Deco House: Avant-Garde House of the 1920s and 1930s’. Watsonguptill publishing company. New York. 2002
^Striner, Richard. ‘Art Deco: Polemics and Synthesis’. WInterthur portfolio, Vol 25. No. 1 ( spring, 1990). PP. 26–34.
^Yang, Jian. ‘Art Deco 1910–39’. Craft Arts International, 2003, Issue 59, PP. 84–87.
The name Australia (pronounced /əˈstreɪliə/ in Australian English)[27] is derived from the Latin Terra Australis Incognita ('unknown southern land'), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.[28] Several 16th-century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.[29]
When the Dutch began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, they called the continent New Holland. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who circumnavigated the continent in 1803. However, when his account of his voyage was published in 1814, the name Terra Australis was used.[28]
Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,[18][19][20][21] with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.[18] It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.[32][33] The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.[19][20][34] The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 42,000 years ago.[35]
Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago.[51][52] Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s.[51] By the mid-18th century in northern Australia, contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement had been established between local Aboriginal groups and Makassantrepangers, visiting from present-day Indonesia.[53][54][55]
The Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, captained by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606.[56] Later that year, Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast.[57]Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land. On his second voyage of 1644, he mapped the north coast of Australia south of New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. They named the continent New Holland.[58]
Most early settlers were convicts, transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Once emancipated, convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance, convict rebellions and bushranging were sometimes suppressed under martial law.[62][63] The 1808 Rum Rebellion, carried out by officers of the New South Wales Corp, led to a temporary military junta.[64] During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of a Legislative Council and Supreme Court, saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.[65]
The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.[66] British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with Aboriginal groups.[67][68] As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed in frontier conflicts, which many historians argue included acts of genocide by settlers.[69][70] Settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.[69]
The six colonies individually gained responsible government between 1855 and 1890, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[78] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.[79] The colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights to adult men from 1856, with women's suffrage on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885.[80]
From 1901, Australia was a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.[92] It was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920,[93] and the United Nations in 1945.[94] The Statute of Westminster 1931 ended the ability of the UK to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.[95]
In the three decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.[107] Governments encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe and called these migrants "New Australians". High immigration was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish,"[108] and from the 1960s the white Australia policy was gradually relaxed.[109]
Following the abolition of the last vestiges of the White Australia policy in 1973,[117] Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.[118] The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Asia–Pacific nations.[119] The Australia Acts of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity as Queen of Australia.[120][121] In a 1999 constitutional referendum, 55% of voters rejected abolishing the monarchy and becoming a republic.[122]
Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009.[123] The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin.[124]
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, from March 2020 lockdowns and other restrictions on public gatherings and movement across the national and state borders were implemented by the Federal, state and territory governments. Following the rollout of vaccines in 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased. In October 2023, Australia declared that COVID-19 was no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance.[125]
Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° south, and longitudes 112° and 154° east.[8] Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than 2,300 km (1,400 mi).[127]
Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid.[132] In 2021, Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.[133]Forest cover is around 17% of Australia's land area.[134][135] The Australian mainland is relatively flat, with an average height of 325 metres (1,066 ft) compared with 870 metres (2,850 ft) for all continents.[136] The Great Dividing Range runs along most of eastern Australia, dividing the central lowlands from the eastern highlands.[137] At 2,228 m (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the mainland. Taller are Mawson Peak, at 2,745 m (9,006 ft), on Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively.[137]
Uluru in the semi-arid region of Central Australia
The Murray-Darling is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards Lake Alexandrina and the sea in South Australia. There are also smaller coastal river systems, inland drainage systems such as the Lake Eyre system, and salt lake systems in central and western Australia.[138] Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent. The mainland's flat, arid profile also makes its rivers slow-moving, resulting in a build up of salt on the land.[139] Salinisation adversely affects Australia's soil which is, on average, poor in nutrients compared with world standards.[140]
Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; the world average is 39%.[141] Australia's population density is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre,[24] which is one of the lowest in the world.[141] However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.[24]
Formerly part of the Rodinia and Gondwanasupercontinents,[142] Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 35 million years ago and continued drifting northwards.[143] When the Last Glacial Period ended, rising sea levels separated the Australian mainland from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and from Tasmania about 6,000 years ago.[143]
Australia lies well within the Australian tectonic plate. The mainland is relatively stable geologically, with no major mountain building, active volcanoes or tectonic faults.[144] However, the Australian plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm a year and is currently in collision with the Eurasian plate and Pacific plate.[145] The resulting intratectonic stresses lead to relatively high seismic activity for a geologically stable landmass. There were 18 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of greater than 6 between 1901 and 2017.[145] The Newcastle earthquake of 1989 was Australia's deadliest, killing 13 people.[146] There were active volcanoes on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago,[147] and this is reflected in Aboriginal place names and creation stories.[148] Currently, volcanism occurs in the remote Heard Island and McDonald Islands.[149]
The Australian continental crust was created in three cycles from the oldest Archaeancratons in the west to the younger orogenic formations in the east (built about 541 million to 252 million years ago).[147][150] The oldest Australian surface rocks date to the Archaean period. Some in Western Australia are older than 3.7 billion years and others in South Australia are over 3.1 billion years old. The oldest zircon crystals on Earth, dating back 4.4 billion years, have been found in Western Australia. However, about 80 per cent of Australia is covered by sedimentary rocks and regolith that are less than 250 million years old.[147]
The Australian climate ranges from wet tropical in the northeast and northwest to arid in the centre. The coastal south is temperate and humid with winter freezing and snow in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania. The climate is influenced by Australia's position in the "horse latitudes", which tends to bring arid conditions.[152] Overall, the Australian mainland is the driest inhabited continent, with an average annual rainfall of 470 millimetres (19 in).[132] About 70% of the country is arid or semi-arid,[132] and about 18% is desert.[153]
The climate is also influenced by various systems such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Southern Annular Mode.[154] Australia has unusual variability in rainfall within years and between years, leading to frequent droughts and flooding. Cyclones and rain depressions are common in tropical Australia. The summer monsoon brings significant rainfall to northern Australia and low pressure cells bring winter rainfall in the south. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country and the coolest in the southeast. Bushfire conditions are common in southern Australia.[152]
Climate change from increased greenhouse gas emissions has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910 and an increase in extreme heat and heavy rainfall events. There has been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970 and a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. Rainfall has increased in northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones has fallen since 1982 and alpine snow has decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic.[154]
In January 2025, there were 168,386 named species on the Australian National Species List.[160] However, it is estimated that 70% of Australian species have not been discovered and classified and that there may be 600,000 Australian native species. In general, knowledge of vertebrates and flowering plants is better than for invertebrates and fungi. It is estimated that less that 10% of Australia's fungi and insects have been named.[161]
About 10% of the world's known plant species are found in Australia.[162] Many of these have adapted to the arid climate, variable rainfall and nutrient-poor soil. Deserts and xeric shrubland cover about 70% of the mainland. Acacia, banksia and eucalypts have spread over much of Australia. Many plants have hard and long-living leaves, and are rich in carbon, poor in nutrients, and well adapted to bushfires.[163]
About two-thirds of the world's 330 species of marsupials are native to Australia.[164] Australian placental mammals (overwhelmingly bats, rats and mice) also make up almost 47% of the world's land mammal species.[165] Australia has about 10% of the world's known reptile species.[166] There are also about 320,500 invertebrate species, of which insects are the largest class, accounting for more than 75% of all animal species.[167] Australia has over 15,000 known species of fungi, although it is possible that tens of thousands more exist.[168]
Australia's wildlife show many adaptations to their environments. As the leaves of most plants are poor in nutrients, Australia has a high proportion of birds, insects and marsupials, such as the honey possum, that feed on nectar and pollen. The koala is an exception, specialising in feeding on eucalyptus leaves.[169][170] Nutritionally poor flora and variable rainfall also favour animals with lower energy requirements, including snakes, lizards, and hopping marsupials such as the kangaroo and wallaby. There is, however, evidence of convergent evolution of Australia's marsupials and the placental mammals of other continents living in similar environments. For example, the extinct thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) had similarities with the placental wolf, marsupial moles with the golden moles of Africa, and hopping mice with the hopping rodents of other arid regions.[170]
There were major extinctions of Australia's vertebrates, including its megafauna, around 46 thousand years ago, and there is an ongoing scientific debate over the role of human activity and climate change in these extinctions. The contraction of the range of the Tasmanian tiger and Tasmanian devil to that island around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is also consistent with changes on the mainland including an increasing human population, the introduction of the dingo, and the greater use of fire and new stone tool technologies.[171][172]
Over the past two centuries, Australia has lost more mammal species than any other continent. Overall, 100 Australian species are listed as extinct or extinct in the wild. In June 2021, over 1,000 animal and plant species were listed by Australian governments as endangered or critically endangered.[173] The major threats to endangered species are landscape change, ecosystem disruption, introduced species such as the feral cat and red fox, and climate change.[174]
Executive: the Australian Government, led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosen Cabinet and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general[183]
Following elections on 3 May 2025, the prime minister is Anthony Albanese of the Australian Labor Party.[184]Charles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by section 63 of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers.[185][186] Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercise reserve powers: powers exercisable in the absence of, or contrary to, ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.[187]
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).[188] The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[189] The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum.[190] Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus, only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[188]
Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use the Hare-Clark system). The Senate and most state upper houses use the proportional system which combines preferential voting with proportional representation for each state. Voting and enrolment is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction.[191][192][193] The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes prime minister. The governor-general appoints the prime minister and may dismiss one who has lost the confidence of parliament or acts illegally.[194] As Australia is a Westminster parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, its system has sometimes been called a "Washminster mutation",[180] or semi-parliamentary.[195]
There are two major political groups that have usually formed government federally: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party.[196][197] At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the parties merged in Queensland and the Northern Territory (federal parliamentarians, however, sit in either the Liberal or National party room); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania.[198] Within Australian political culture, the Labor Party is considered centre-left and the Coalition is considered centre-right.[199] Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Australian Greens are the third largest party by both vote and membership.[200][201][when?]
The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth (the federal level of government) exclusive powers.[203][204] The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.[205][206] Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states has significantly increased due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers – and because of the states' heavy financial reliance on Commonwealth grants.[207][208]
Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the premier and in each territory the chief minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.[186]
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.[224][225][226]
The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the national security committee, with major decision such as joining the 2003 invasion of Iraq made without prior Cabinet approval.[237][238] Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.[239] The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade supports the executive in its policy decisions.[240]
In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from black coal (37.2%), brown coal (12%), natural gas (18.8%), hydro (6.5%), wind (11.1%), solar (13.3%), bio-energy (1.2%) and others (1.7%).[276][277] Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).[278] From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.[279]
In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources,[280] exceeding the target set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.[281] A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022[282] and a target for net zero emissions by 2050 was set in 2021.[283]
In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP.[284] A 2022 study by the industry lobby group, The Tech Council of Australia, stated that the Australian technology sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.[285] In 2022, startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne were valued at $34 billion.[286] Australia ranked 22nd in the Global Innovation Index 2025.[287][288]
With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed over 4% of the world's published research in 2020,[289] making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.[290]CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.[289] Australian achievements include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy,[291] the essential components of Wi-Fi technology,[292] and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.[293] As of 2024[update], 13 Australian scientists have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry or medicine,[294] and two have been awarded the Fields Medal.[295]
The population of Australia is estimated to be 28,125,300 as of 5 November 2025.[10] It is the 54th[297] most populous country in the world and the most populous Oceanian country.
Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.[298] Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.[24]
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age of the population was 39 years.[299]
Australia has five cities (including their suburbs) that have populations larger than one million people. The majority of Australia's population lives near coastlines.[300]
Australian residents by country of birth (2021 census)
Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, the white Australia policy was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2, and in the decades following, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with multiculturalism becoming official policy.[302] Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.[303]
Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations.[304][305] In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.[306][307] Most entered on skilled visas,[303] however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and refugees.[308]
English has no legal status in Australia but it is the de facto official and national language due to its widespread established use.[313][314]Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,[315] and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.[316]General Australian serves as the standard dialect.[317] The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.[318]
At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).[319]
More than 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.[320] The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.[321] The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole), Djambarrpuyngu (a YolÅ‹u language) and Pitjantjatjara (a Western Desert language) were among the most widely spoken.[322] NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.[323]
Australia has no state religion; section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits federal legislation that would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.[324] However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.[325]
In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.[4] In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.[328]
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females)[329] is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,[330] while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[331][332] Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women[333] and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults;[334] 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[335]
Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.[336] It introduced a national insurance scheme in 1975.[337] Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became universal once more in 1981 under the name of Medicare.[338] The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%.[339] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.[337]
Australia has the highest ratio of international students per capita in the world, with Melbourne ranking fifth among the 2023 QS Best Student Cities (University of Melbourne pictured).
School attendance, or registration for home schooling,[340] is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.[341] Since 2014, a national curriculum developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.[342] Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.[343][344] In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.[345][346][347][348] According to the 2022 PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.[349][350]
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.[351] However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".[352][353][354]
Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[355] The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[356] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.[357] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications[358] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.[359][360][361]
Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.[362][363] Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.[364] Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.[N 12][289]
Many Australians identify egalitarianism, mateship, irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their national identity.[372][373][374] These find expression in Australian slang, as well as Australian humour, which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.[375][376] New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the Department of Home Affairs as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "fair go", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.[377] What these values mean, and whether Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.[378][379][380][381]
In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in corroborees.[50] At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers,[396] and later popular music acts such as the Bee Gees, AC/DC, INXS and Kylie Minogue achieved international recognition.[397] Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's Australia Council.[398] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[399] and a national opera company, Opera Australia,[400] well known for its famous sopranoJoan Sutherland.[401] Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[402]
Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,[410] and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,[410] and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.[410] In 2024, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 39th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (23rd), but ahead of the United States (55th).[411] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;[412] most print media are under the control of News Corp Australia (59%) and Nine Entertainment (23%).[413]
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker.[414] It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as lemon myrtle, the macadamia nut and kangaroo meat now widely available.[415][416]
Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new fusion dishes.[420] Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the flat white and avocado toast are now considered Australian staples.[421][422]Pavlovas, lamingtons, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are also often called iconic Australian foods.[423]
Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine.[424]Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.[425] The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption,[426] with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.
The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.[428]
Australia has professional leagues for four football codes, whose relative popularity is divided geographically.[436] Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union.[437]Soccer, while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.[438]
The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.[439][440]
^Australia also has a royal anthem, "God Save the King", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of the royal family are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.[1]
^Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities.[2] Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 people or more.[3]
^The religion question is optional in the Australian census.
^Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry.[4] The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-CelticEuropean ancestry.[312]
^Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.[309]
^The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial Anglo-CelticEuropean ancestry.[312]
^Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander), which is a separate question.
^Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^"Australian National Anthem". Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 19 January 2022. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^ ab"Population clock and pyramid". Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Commonwealth of Australia. 5 March 2024. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 5 March 2024. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
^Clarke, Jacqueline; Clarke, Philip (10 August 2014). "Putting 'Australia' on the map". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
^Williams, Elizabeth (2015). "Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia". Antiquity. 61 (232). Cambridge University Press: 310–321. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00052182. S2CID162146349.
^"Torres Strait Islands". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023 [1998]. Archived from the original on 15 June 2024. Retrieved 17 November 2024. Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. [...] They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.
^"Torres, Luis Vaez de (?–?)". Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1967. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
^ abReynolds 2022, pp. 103–104, 134, 138–141, 182–192, 241–242
^Rogers, Thomas James; Bain, Stephen (2016). "Genocide and frontier violence in Australia". Journal of Genocide Research. 18: 83–100. doi:10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466. Since Curthoys' assertion in 2008 of a general reluctance to engage directly with the question of genocide in the Australian context, there is now a substantial body of Australian scholarship prepared to utilize genocide frameworks in analysing violence on the Australian frontiers, and to conclude that genocide did indeed occur
^"Lockyer, Edmund (1784–1860)". Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1967. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
^"Australia Act 1986 (Cth)". Documenting a Democracy. Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
^"National Reserve System". Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Archived from the original on 3 March 2025. Retrieved 3 March 2025.
^Evans, Tim (2006). "Compulsory Voting in Australia"(PDF). Australian Electoral Commission. p. 4. Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
^Brett, Judith (2019). From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting. Text Publishing Co. ISBN978-1-9256-0384-2.
^"Governor-General's Role". Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
^Fenna, Alan; Robbins, Jane; Summers, John (2013). Government Politics in Australia. London: Pearson Higher Education AU. p. 139. ISBN978-1-4860-0138-5.
^Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 405–6. ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 528–30, 577–80. ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Australian Constitution (Cth) s 109. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid."
^Pyke, John (2020). Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 607–9. ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Beck, Luke (2020). Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases. Port Melbourne, VIC: Cambridge university press. pp. 521–8. ISBN978-1-108-70103-7.
^Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.[209][210]
^This Antarctic claim is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.
^"Australian Territories". Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
^ ab2017 Foreign Policy White Paper(PDF) (Report). Australian Government. 2017. pp. 1–8. Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
^Firth, Stewart (2011). Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 332–8. ISBN978-1-74237-263-1.
^Capling, Ann (2013). Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle. Cambridge University Press. p. 116. ISBN978-0-5217-8525-9.
^Gallagher, P. W. (1988). "Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group". Australian Journal of International Affairs. 42 (1 April 1988): 3–8. doi:10.1080/10357718808444955.
^Firth, Stewart (2011). Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 78–84. ISBN978-1-74237-263-1.
^"The Beach". Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 17 March 2008. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010.
^Ward, Rowena (2019). "'National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific". Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies. 16 (1/2): 83–4. doi:10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510. The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.
^ abBiggs, Amanda (29 October 2004). "Medicare – Background Brief". Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library. Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
^"Education". Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
^"Our system of education". Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
^Fund, Leith van OnselenLeith van Onselen is Chief Economist at the MB; Treasury, MB Super Leith has previously worked at the Australian; Treasury, Victorian; Sachs, Goldman (31 October 2019). "Australian universities double down on international students". MacroBusiness.
^White, Richard (1 January 1983). "A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation". Theory, Culture and Society. 1 (3): 108–122. doi:10.1177/026327648300100309. S2CID144339300.
^"Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012), The Australasian.
^Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.). The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247.
^Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings, North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. ISBN978-90-5703-681-1.
^Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009). Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader. SSS Publications. p. xii. ISBN978-8-1902-2821-3.
^Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-5210-0956-0, p. 72.
^O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012). Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song. Allen & Unwin. p. back cover. ISBN978-1-7423-7706-3.
^"Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia"". Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 22 November 2007. Archived from the original on 27 March 2011.
^Jonsen, Helen (1999). Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book. Hippocrene Books. p. 23. ISBN978-0-7818-0737-1.
^Newton, John (2018). The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New. NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742244365, pp. 32, 230–231.
^Harte, Chris; Whimpress, Bernard (2008). The Penguin History of Australian Cricket (3rd ed.). Camberwell, Vic: Viking. pp. 92–94, 528, 722. ISBN9780670072880.
^Skinner, James; Zakus H., Dwight; Edwards, Allan (2013). "Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer". In Adam, Brown (ed.). Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice. Routledge. pp. 92–93. ISBN978-1-317-96905-1.
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